Maximum extent of Gallic tribes, ca. 60 BC.
The Gauls were Celtic tribes who inhabited much of western Europe in Roman times. These tribes lived independently until the 2nd century BC when Rome intervened on the side of Massilia (Marseilles), a Greek colony founded in 600 BC, in its struggle against the “barbarian” Gauls of the hinterland. The result was the formation, in 121 BC, of the Roman Provincia in what is now southern France; between 58 to 50 BC Julius Caesar seized the remainder. For more than four centuries Gaul enjoyed the benefits of Roman rule, and many ruins of aqueducts and bathhouses still dot the French landscape. After 395 AD the internal problems of the Empire encouraged barbarian penetration of Gaul. By 418, the Franks and Burgundians were established west of the Rhine, and the Visigoths had settled in Aquitaine. The period of the Merovingian and Carolingian Frankish dynasties (476-887) frames the Early Middle Ages.
Following his ascension, the first Merovingian king, Clovis (481-511), consolidated the position of the Franks in northern Gaul. Clovis came to believe that his victories were due to the Christian God. Clovis’ subsequent conversion assured the Frankish rulers of the support not only of the Catholic Church but of the majority of their own subjects. The Frankish kingdom reached its largest extent under Charlemagne (768-814), who united modern-day France, Italy, and Germany under his rule.
The Gauls were a dynamic force in the Ancient world. In the Aegean world, a huge migration of Eastern Gauls appeared in Thrace, north of Greece, in 281 BC. Under Brennus they sacked Rome circa 390 BC. He was only turned back from desecrating the Temple of Apollo at Delphi at the last minute, alarmed, it was said, by portents of thunder and lightning. Three tribes of Gauls crossed over from Thrace to Asia Minor at express invitation of Nicomedes I, king of Bithynia, who required help in a dynastic struggle against his brother. Eventually they settled down in eastern Phrygia and Cappadocia in central Anatolia, a region henceforth known as Galatia.
Vercingetorix
Between 58 and 53 BC, Julius Caesar had achieved dominion over the Celtic tribes beyond the Procincia Narbonensis (modern day Provence) through a careful divide and rule strategy. Previous attempts at revolt, for example that of Ambiorix in 54 BC, had secured only local support, but Vercingetorix, whose father, Celtillus, had been put to death by his own countrymen for seeking kingship over all of Gaul, managed to unify the Gallic tribes against the Romans and adopted more modern styles of warfare.
Vercingetorix began raising his forces in the winter of 52 BC, while Caesar was in Cisalpine Gaul. He faced some initial resistance from the nobles of the Arverni, but he raised an army of the poor, overthrew his opponents and was hailed as king. He made alliances with other tribes, and having achieved supreme command, imposed his authority through harsh discipline. He adopted the policy of retreating to natural fortifications, and undertook an early scorched earth strategy by burning towns to prevent the Roman legions from living off the land.
Caesar lost the initial minor engagements against Vercingetorix, but captured the tribal capital at Avaricum (Bourges), killing the entire population of 40,000. The next major battle at Gergovia resulted in a victory for Vercingetorix because Caesar was too anxious and had attacked instead of besieging and starving the city in standard Roman fashion. Thinking Caesar was in retreat, Vercingetorix abandoned his cautious tactics and attacked head on. Due to losses he had to retreat and moved to another stronghold, Alesia.
In the Battle of Alesia, Caesar was more patient and built a fortification around the city. The siege was complicated when Vercingetorix summoned his Gallic allies to attack the besieging Romans, surrounding Caesar. In response, Caesar built another outer fortification against the expected relief armies (resulting in a doughnut-shaped fortification). The relief came in vast numbers: an estimated 100,000 soldiers (although Caesar claimed there were 250,000). Vercingetorix, the tactical leader, was cut off from them on the inside, and without his guidance the attacks were initially unsuccessful. However, the attacks did reveal a weak point in the fortifications and the combined forces on the inside and the outside almost made a breakthrough. Only when Caesar led the last reserves into battle in person did he finally manage to prevail. This was a decisive battle in the creation of the Roman Empire.
Vercingetorix surrendered in magnificent fashion, allegedly riding his horse out of Alesia and around Caesar’s camp before throwing his arms at Caesar’s feet, then kneeling to Caesar with a flourish. He was imprisoned in the Tullianum in Rome for five years, before being publicly displayed in Caesar’s triumph in 46 BC and subsequently executed.
